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Ask any mead maker and they’ll tell you: mead making is cool. Mead making is mystical. Mead making is like stepping into the shoes of ancient alchemists of centuries past blending age-old traditions with the advantage of modern creativity. You're not just brewing a beverage - you're crafting a magical elixir that connects the past with the present, creating your own unique twist on a beverage enjoyed by Vikings, medieval knights, mystical druids and you!

One of the first steps in the process of mead making is preparing your honey. There are many different methods available, some traditional, some modern, and a simple internet search can quickly become overwhelming. In this blog, we'll explore the most popular methods for using honey in mead making, ranked in order by their overall popularity. We’ll present the information in outline form so you can get to the good information quickly, because, let's face it, most of us have that tldr mindset.

Wrapping it All Up

We fermentation hobbyists have a tendency to make things more complicated than they need to be. Preparing honey for mead making doesn't have to be complicated. Remember - making mead is as much about the journey as it is about the final product. Whether you choose to add your honey directly, use sulphites, pasteurize, or boil, each method has its own set of benefits that can lead to delicious and unique meads. Which one should you use? The direct addition is the easiest and most common, but experimenting with different techniques can be a fun way to discover what works best for you and your mead. And fun (hopefully) is the ultimate reason we engage with this hobby. Cheers!

Many of the old, traditional wine making books (not that anyone reads books anymore) talk about using sulphite solutions for sanitization. And with popular alternatives like Star San having taken over the world, you might wonder if sulphite solutions can indeed be used as sanitizers, or if this was just old-timey lore.

As it turns out, in fact, sulphite solutions can be used as effective sanitizers for home wine-, cider- and mead making. Sulphite solutions can be made from either potassium metabisulfite or sodium metabisulfite, and both work well to prevent contamination by killing bacteria, wild yeast, and other unwanted microorganisms.

How to Use a Sulphite Solution for Sanitizing

1. Prepare the Solution:
• Dissolve 4 tablespoon (50 grams) of potassium metabisulfite or sodium metabisulfite in 1 gallon (3.8 liters) of warm water.
2. Sanitize Equipment:
• Thoroughly rinse or submerge all equipment in the sulphite solution. Make sure all surfaces come into contact with the solution.
3. Contact Time:
• Allow the equipment to stay in contact with the solution for at least 10 minutes.
4. Drain Well:
• Drain the equipment well. No rinsing or air drying is necessary, so you can use the sanitized equipment right away.

Well, if you really want to geek out about things, here’s how sulphite solutions work for sanitizing winemaking equipment: It's all about the SO₂. How many times have I said that? SO₂. I have a tee shirt that reads "It's the SO₂, Dummy!"

1. Release of Sulphur Dioxide (SO₂):
• When potassium metabisulfite (K₂S₂O₅) or sodium metabisulfite (Na₂S₂O₅) is dissolved in water, it releases sulphur dioxide (SO₂) gas. This gas is the active sanitizing agent.
• The chemical reaction for potassium metabisulfite in water is:
  

  K₂S₂O₅ + H₂O → 2KHSO₃

  KHSO₃ → K⁺ + HSO₃⁻

  HSO₃⁻ + H₂O → H₂SO₄ + SO₂

• _{(Damn, Neidermeyer, you're a geek. How 'bout you just give me your lunch money right now so I don't have to kick your ass.)}
• Similar reactions occur with sodium metabisulfite, so don't ask me to repeat the chemistry. Plus, I have no more lunch money.
2. Antimicrobial Properties:
• Inhibits Microorganisms: SO₂ is highly effective at inhibiting the growth and activity of a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, wild yeasts, and molds. It works by disrupting their metabolism and enzyme function, leading to cell death. Hey, they weren't invited to the winemaking party. They knew what they were getting into, so I say let them die.
3. Chemical Environment:
• pH Impact: SO₂ is more effective in acidic environments (lower pH), which is typically the case in wine and cider making. The acidic environment enhances the antimicrobial activity of SO₂.
• Residual Protection: Even after initial sanitation, a small amount of residual SO₂ remains on the surfaces of the equipment, providing ongoing protection against microbial contamination.

The Many Benefits of Using a Sulphite Solution

Well, they won't do your taxes or help you save for retirement, but they have other useful applications:

• Effective Broad-Spectrum Sanitizer: I hate to use the term "broad-spectrum" because it reminds me of the crazy stuff I put on my front lawn, but oh, well... Anyway, sulphite solutions are effective against a wide range of unwanted microorganisms, and by wide range, I mean I don't want any of them.
• No Rinsing Required: After sanitizing, there is no need to rinse the equipment with water, as the small amount of residual SO₂ will not harm the wine and will help in preserving it.
• Easy to Prepare and Use: Sulphite solutions are easy to prepare and use. Yeah, well so is Star San, but if it's the zombie apocalypse and I don't have any Star San around, then I'm using my sulphite solution. Just saying.

So now you know how a sulphite solution can effectively sanitize your equipment and reduce the risk of contamination, leading to better quality wine. And after this chemistry demonstration, you'll need plenty of good quality wine to bribe the neighborhood bully not to take your lunch money.

It’s fairly common for beginner home winemakers to hear intimidating, chemically-sounding terms like “postassium metabisulphite” and wonder if they are adding dangerous compounds to their wine. It’s natural to have concerns, but you might be surprised to learn that sulphites are also natural.

What Are Sulphites?

First of all, it’s interesting to note that sulphites are natural in that they occur in nature. In fact, sulphites occur in wine as a byproduct of fermentation, even if no additional sulphites are added. During fermentation, yeast metabolizes the sugars in grape juice, producing not only alcohol and carbon dioxide but also small amounts of sulphur dioxide (SO₂). This natural production of SO₂ serves as a microbial preservative and antioxidant, contributing to the wine's stability and longevity. Consequently, all wines, even those labeled as "sulphite-free," contain some level of naturally occurring sulphites due to the yeast’s metabolic activity.

Okay, so sulphites occur naturally, but what are they? Sulphites are compounds that contain sulphur dioxide (SO₂), which is widely used in winemaking as a natural preservative and sanitizer. Common forms include potassium metabisulfite and sodium metabisulfite. In home winemaking, they are generally used interchangeably.

Why Are Sulphites Used in Winemaking?

1. Preservation:
• Prevent Oxidation: Okay, so whenever we use the term “preservative” things start to sound scary, and perhaps rightfully so, because the industrial food producers do in fact put some scary compounds in our food. But when you think of sulphites, think of antioxidants like ascorbic acid, also known as vitamin C. Sulphites are powerful antioxidants, and thus they protect wine from oxidation, which can spoil the wine’s flavor and aroma and lead to browning. Sulphites help maintain the wine's freshness and longevity.
• Inhibit Microbial Growth: Sulphites prevent the growth of unwanted bacteria and wild yeast, which reduces the risk of spoilage. With the bad guys out of the way, our yeast can ferment the wine correctly.
2. Sanitization:
• Equipment Sanitizer: Winemakers often use sulphite solutions to sanitize winemaking equipment, which helps eliminate harmful microorganisms that could contaminate and produce off-flavors in our wine.

Are Sulphites Safe?

1. Regulated Use:
• Safety Standards: This brings to mind thoughts like “everything in moderation”, or “too much of a good thing.” Vitamin A is necessary for survival, but too much can kill you. Arctic explorers learned this the hard way after eating the liver of polar bears. Sulphite levels in wine are regulated by food safety authorities worldwide, including the FDA in the United States and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). These regulations make sure safe amounts are used for consumption, and that’s a good thing.
• Typical Levels: Most wines contain sulphite levels well within safety limits. For example, commercial wines typically contain between 20-200 parts per million (ppm) of sulphites, with the upper limit for most wines being around 350 ppm, and most home winemakers use way less than that. One Campden tablet per gallon of wine produces a mere 30 ppm. To put this in perspective, dried apricots or sun-dried tomatoes can have suphite levels above 1000 ppm.  Also, wine doesn’t require high levels, and at high levels, you would taste the sulfur, and wine makers do not want to taste sulfur. Thus, sulphite levels in wine are typically many times lower than what’s found in different types of food.
2. Common Misconceptions:
• Allergies and Sensitivities: Some people have sulphite sensitivities or allergies, but these allergies are relatively rare. Compare this to lactose intolerance. Many estimates place worldwide lactose intolerance near 75%, yet milk doesn’t get a bag rap. For those with Sulphite sensitivities, symptoms may include headaches, hives, or asthma-like reactions. However, for most people, sulphites in wine pose no risk. Many people who drink wine and report headaches wrongfully attribute their headache to sulphites when in fact they are having a reaction to natural histamines found in wine, which is greater in red wines.
• Natural Occurrence: Sulphites occur naturally during the fermentation process, so even wines labeled as "sulphite-free" will contain trace amounts of naturally occurring sulphites.
3. Moderation:
• Safe Consumption: We are repeating what we said before. Everything in moderation. When used correctly and in moderation, sulphites help produce high-quality, stable wine without posing a danger to the wine maker or drinker. If you used sulphite levels in your wine where you began to taste it, that level would still be an order of magnitude less than what you would find, for example, on dried apricots.

So What Have We Learned?

Yes, there are many scary things in the world, but sulphites are not one of them. Okay, I admit that sulphites have an image problem in that the name sounds too industrial. Maybe sulphites could benefit from some professional marking, and perhaps a stylist. Maybe if we changed the name from “sulphites” to “fuzzy bunny slippers”, then everyone would feel that “warm fuzzy” feeling using sulphites for the first time. So remember, sulphites are a natural and essential additive in both home and professional winemaking. Sulphites help protect the wine’s quality, prevent spoilage, and maintain its freshness for long-term aging. So I guess we can relax and tip a glass to that!

What is Degassing?

• Degassing: Degassing is the process of removing dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) from the wine after fermentation. During fermentation, yeast produces CO2 as a byproduct, which can remain dissolved in the wine. In fact, at the end of fermentation, all wines will be slightly carbonated.

Why is Degassing Important?

• Preventing Fizz: Residual CO2 can cause a fizzy or carbonated effect in still wines, which is not what you want unless you're making sparkling wine. Some people find this fizziness extremely annoying.
• Helping to Clear the Wine: Degassing the wine will help in the clearing process of the wine.

How Improper Degassing Affects Wine's Clarity

1. CO2 and Fining Agents: During maturation and clarification, if CO2 is still present in the wine, it can cause fine bubbles that keep these particles suspended, reducing the effectiveness of fining agents and preventing them from settling properly. Fining agents like bentonite or gelatin work by binding to particles (proteins, tannins, yeast, etc.) and causing them to settle out of the wine. Dissolved CO2 can interfere with this process.

2. Particle Suspension:

   • Suspended Particles: Dissolved CO2 creates micro-bubbles that can attach to particles in the wine, keeping them in suspension rather than allowing them to settle to the bottom.
   • Hazy Wine: These suspended particles contribute to haze, preventing the wine from clearing sufficiently.

Proper Degassing Techniques

To ensure your wine clears properly, it’s important to degas it thoroughly. There are numberous methods for degassing:

• Manual Stirring: Vigorously stir the wine with a long-handled sanitized spoon or drill-mounted degassing wand to release CO2. This is the most common technique by home wine makers.
• Vacuum Pump: Use a vacuum pump to create a negative pressure, which reduces the CO2's solubility and pulls the CO2 out of the wine. Vacuum pumps work great in heavy duty stainless steel tanks, but a strong vacuum could implode a bucket or break a carboy.
• Time and Temperature: Allowing the wine to sit for an extended period and keeping it at a slightly warmer temperature can also help CO2 naturally escape. This works by natural diffusion. Gas always moves from a higher concentration to a lower concentration. With enough time, the dissolved CO2 in the wine will diffuse through the water in the airlock until it reaches an equilibrium with the natural CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, which is low.

Summary

In case you weren't listening, or if you have short term memory loss or perhaps you thought this was an article about Taylor Swift, the key points are worth repeating. Proper degassing is important for these reasons:

• Enhanced Clarification: CO2 removal helps fining agents work effectively by allowing particles to settle.
• Preventing Haze: Reduces the likelihood of suspended particles causing haze.

So grab your long-handled stirring spoon and get mixing, because a properly degassed wine leads to a clearer wine, and the faster we can clear our wine, the sooner we can bottle and drink it, which makes everybody happy.

Welcome to the exciting hobby of home winemaking! Whether you're a beginner just starting your first batch, or if you’re more experienced but looking to refine your skills, this guide will help you navigate the winemaking process when making wine from ready-to-go kits like those from RJS Craft Winemaking or Winexpert.

The following instructions will closely parallel the detailed steps provided in your winemaking kit, with a particular focus on why you are performing the actual step. The winemaking kit producers have optimized their “paint-by-the-numbers” approach to winemaking instructions, but they do not tell you why you do things. It’s helpful to understanding the purpose behind each step. As you gain knowledge, you'll also gain confidence, and ultimately you’ll have more fun and make better wine, which is the point, after all.

Below is a general outline of the winemaking process, along with explanations of why each step is important. The winemaking kit producers typically organize the process around the following three principle steps:

1. Fermentation
2. Stabilizing and Clearing
3. Bottling

Remember to refer to the specific instructions included with your wine kit for precise details.

Step 1 – Fermenting the Wine

Typical Equipment Used:

• Primary Fermenter – this can be a plastic food-grade bucket and lid or a carboy and rubber bung. Make sure your fermenter is at least 7 gallons (25 liters), because you will be filling it to the 6 gallon (23 liter) volume.
• Wine Thief – a handy tool for drawing a sample of must or wine for checking specific gravity.
• Test Cylinder – the handy location for your must or juice sample where you float your hydrometer.
• Long Handled Spoon – you will need this to thoroughly mix the juice concentrate in the water. If you do not mix the concentrate completely, then your original gravity hydrometer reading will definitely be wrong.
• Airlock – it’s always best to affix and airlock to your bucket or carboy.
• Hydrometer – a common winemaker’s tool that measures the must or wine’s density, which ultimately can be used to determine the wine’s alcohol content and to determine if fermentation has completed.

1. Clean and sanitize the following equipment: primary fermenter (bucket and lid, or carboy and rubber bung), airlock, long-handled spoon, hydrometer, wine thief and test cylinder.

2. Prepare the bentonite. Bentonite is used for wine clarification. To learn more about bentonite, click here. Add the pack of bentonite to 1 cup (approximately 250 ml) hot or boiling water. Stir constantly to create a slurry without clumps. Set aside until Step 3. The wine kit instructions often say to pour the bentonite powder directly into the primary fermenter with some pre-measured amount of water. You can do this instead, but it becomes very difficult to fully mix the bentonite and prevent clumping.

3. Add 4 quarts (4 liters) of room temperature water (68-77˚F /20-25˚C) to the Primary Fermenter. With constant stirring, slowly add the bentonite slurry from the previous step. Stir until completely dispersed.

4. Pour the juice concentrate bag into the water / bentonite mixture in the primary fermenter.

5. We want to get every last precious drop of juice from the bag. Thus, fill the bag with some warm water, shake, and pour this juicy water mixture into the primary fermenter.

6. To the primary fermenter, add room temperature water (68-77˚F /20-25˚C) up to the 6 gallon (23 liter) volume mark. Stir vigorously. This is important for two reasons. First, vigorous stirring introduces some oxygen, which the yeast will utilize during its reproductive reparative cycle. Second, the juice concentrate is more difficult to fully dissolve than most people realize. If you do not get all of the juice concentrate evenly dissolved in the water, then your original specific gravity reading will be wrong. This is the number one reason why beginner winemakers do not measure the original specific gravity suggested by the wine kit manufacturer.

7. If your wine kit contains any other additives, like oak chips, oak powder, oak tea, raisins, grape skins, or elderflowers, add it now according to the specific instructions supplied by the winemaking kit’s manufacturer.

8. Make sure the temperature of the juice in the primary fermenter is between (68-77˚F /20-25˚C). The yeast appreciates a nice room temperature to get started. If the temperature is too cool, the yeast might not start, or it may take a long time to start. If the temperature is too cool and the yeast does not start, this doesn’t mean the yeast is dead. In this case, the yeast is just dormant, so you would need to move the primary fermenter to a place of proper temperature.

9. Take a hydrometer reading. Use the wine thief to fill the test cylinder. Gently float the hydrometer and record the specific gravity (S.G.). As stated earlier, if your original specific gravity ready is vastly different from the suggested reading, this is almost always caused by not having thoroughly mixed the juice concentrate and water. This is not a problem. All of the sugars are present in the must, and the yeast will consume them and produce a wine of the exact same alcohol as if you had measured the recommended specific gravity. This is a measurement error only. The yeast will still do its job just fine.

10. Place the primary fermenter in a warm (65-72˚F /18-22˚C) area.

11. Add the yeast. Simply sprinkle the yeast over the surface of the juice. Do not stir the yeast in. It will hydrate slowly and safely on its own.

12. Close your primary fermenter. Place the lid on the bucket or the rubber bung on the carboy. Always use an airlock to allow the CO2 gas produced during fermentation to safely escape the fermenter without building up dangerous pressure. Be sure to fill your airlock with water to the prescribed fill line.

13. If your wine kit included any type of grape skins (including dried), then for maximum color and flavor extraction, stir every two days. You can stir once a day if you would like.

14. Wine kit manufacturers sometimes recommend checking the specific gravity daily. This is unnecessary, but you can do it if you would like. When the specific gravity drops below 0.998, then proceed to Step 2 (stabilizing and clearing the wine). The fermentation may take approximately 14 days, but it could happen sooner or later, and neither is a problem as long as the specific gravity drops below 0.998, which means that the yeast has consumed all of the remaining sugar and has now stopped.

Step 2 – Stabilizing and Clearing the Wine

NOTE: You should only proceed with Step 2 if your wine has a measured specific gravity of 0.998 or lower. If this specific gravity is not yet achieved, then wait a few more days (or longer) until fermentation has finished and you have achieved the target specific gravity. This is important, because you do not want to begin clearing the wine (dropping out the yeast) until the yeast has finished fermenting all of the sugars. If you begin stabilizing and clearing too soon, then you will end up with a sweet wine. Worse, the bottled sweetened wine might begin re-fermenting, and then you blow out corks or blow up bottles.

1. Clean and sanitize the following equipment: siphon assembly (usually an auto siphon and hose), glass or plastic carboy (6 gallons / 23 liters), airlock, rubber bung, and long-handled spoon.

2. If your fermenter contained grape skins of any type, remove the straining bag. Squeeze any remaining wine back into the fermenter. After, it’s okay to discard the bag.

3. Siphon wine into carboy. Try not to disturb the sediment at the bottom of the primary fermenter. This is primarily spent yeast, and the purpose of siphoning is to slowly and gently transfer the young wine to a small vessel like the 6 gallon carboy where it can age anaerobically and clear. After siphoning the wine to the 6 gallon carboy, you can discard what’s remains in the primary fermenter, including the sediment, oak, raisins or elderflower infusion bag if your kit included it.

4. De-gas the wine. Beginning winemakers are surprised to learn that young wine is slightly carbonated after fermentation. The wine must be de-gassed to properly clear the wine. To de-gas the wine, use a long-handled spoon and stir the wine vigorously for approximately 5 minutes. Some winemakers use a drill-mounted stirring device. Insufficient stirring will keep too much CO2 dissolved in the wine, which will prevent the wine from properly clearing. For more information about wine degassing, click here.

5. Add the stabilizing compounds. Your wine kit likely includes packets of potassium sulphite and potassium sorbate. Add both packs into the wine and mix gently with a long-handled spoon. Be sure to stir for one minute.

6. Some wine kits contain a finishing blend, which is either a sweetener or a flavor. If your kit has a finishing blend, add it to the wine.

7. Wine kits typically include two packs of clarifying compounds, also known as finings. These include kieselsol (hydrated silica) and chitosan (mollusk shell extracted gelatin). First, add the package of kieselsol. Stir gently with a long handled spoon for 30 seconds, and then wait 5 minutes. After the 5 minutes wait, add the package of chitosan and stir gently for 30 seconds. It is important not to reverse the order of kieselsol and chitosan.

8. Top off the wine. Topping off is the practice of removing the airspace in the carboy by filling it with more wine. This protects the wine against unnecessary oxidation while the wine clears and matures. You may use a similar commercial or homemade wine for this purpose. Fill the carboy until you leave about one inch below the rubber stopper. Some kit manufacturers recommend topping off with water. Don’t use water. This only dilutes your precious wine. Also, don’t think this is cheating, because professional wineries also top off their wine (it is cheating if you have 1 gallon of wine in your carboy and you top off with 5 gallons, but come on!). Also, don’t think that this adds to the cost of your wine. You would have drunk that bottle of wine you used for topping off – just not today.

9. Attach Airlock & Rubber Bung. Let wine rest until day approximately day 42 in a cooler area (59-66˚F/15-19˚C), if possible.

Step 3 – Bottling the Wine

According to the wine kit manufacturers, this is approximately day 42, but it could be longer. Generally, there is no problem waiting longer. Of course, you should be aware that there is no particular advantage to waiting significantly longer. In substitution for oak barrel aging, most wine matures more rapidly (meaning it’s ready to drink) once bottled. Remember, only wine that is crystal clear is ready for bottling. If the wine is still cloudy, then wait for the wine to clear. This could be measured in days or weeks. Some winemakers filter their wine at this point, but proper filtration requires additional and expensive equipment.

1. Clean and sanitize the following equipment: primary fermenter (either bucket or carboy), siphon assembly, and wine bottles. 6 gallons of wine (23 liters) typically requires 30 750ml bottles.

2. Siphon the clear wine into the sanitized primary fermenter. Be careful not to disturb the sediment at the bottom of the carboy. Why do we siphon the wine back into the primary fermenter? It’s never a good idea to bottle the wine directly from the current carboy, because if you disturb the sediment, then you end up filling bottles with cloudy wine. Yes, the cloudy wine will eventually drop clear in the bottles, but then you have bottles with unwanted sediment.

3. Transfer the wine into wine bottles. Most winemakers like to use a handy device called a bottle filler, which is a valve at the end of a stem which makes it easy to controllably fill bottles without making a mess. When filling bottles, leave about 1/2 inch from the bottom of the cork to the top of the wine.

4. Use a corker to cork the bottles. Wine corks are too big to press in by hand.

5. Stand the wine bottles upright for 1 day. This allows the cork to properly expand and seal. If you lay the bottles down immediately, they might leak. For long term storage, it’s best to lay the wine bottles on their side, which prevents the corks from drying out and leaking.

6. For long term storage, it’s best to keep your wine in a cooler environment (between 50-59˚F /10-15˚C) out of direct light. The wine kit manufacturers often suggest that your wine is now ready to drink. Try a bottle and decide what you think. Most winemakers find that allowing the wine to age for a few months helps to mellow the wine and develop the flavors.

Perhaps we should have called this article "Everything You Wanted to Know About Bentonite but Were Afraid to Ask", or perhaps "Everything You Didn't Want to Know About Bentonite and Would Definitely be Ashamed to Ask."

When beginner winemakers are starting their first winemaking kit, they encounter a mystery packet containing a strange granular substance called bentonite, and a common question is, "what is this bentonite stuff and why am I adding it to my juice?" Or for those more prone to paranoia, they ask, "what is this toxic waste sludge, and how soon will it take to kill me?"

You can relax and rest easy, because bentonite is not toxic waste. In fact, bentonite is an actual type of clay commonly mined in Wyoming. How wholesome is that? And it's not even mined next to the Superfund toxic waste dump. Bentonite is most commonly used during the initial stages of the winemaking process, usually during primary fermentation. Here's why and how it is used:

Why Bentonite is Used in Winemaking:

• Protein Stabilization: Bentonite helps to remove pesky proteins that cause cloudiness in the wine. Bentonite binds to these proteins and causes them to precipitate out, which is where they belong - out of our wine!
• Clarity: Bentonite is usually added at the beginning for fermentation, which allows it to work throughout the fermentation process, helping to achieve a clearer final product.

How to Use Bentonite in Winemaking

For 1 Gallon of Wine:

1. Measure Bentonite:
• Use 1 teaspoon (4 grams) of bentonite.
2. Prepare Bentonite Slurry:
• Dissolve the bentonite in ¼ cup (60 milliliters) of warm water. Stir thoroughly to avoid clumping and continue stirring until the bentonite is fully dissolved and forms a smooth slurry.
3. Add to Must:
• Pour the bentonite slurry into your must (the mixture of juice concentrate and water) before adding the yeast.
4. Mix Thoroughly:
• Stir the must well so that the bentonite is evenly distributed throughout the liquid.

For 5 Gallons of Wine:

1. Measure Bentonite:
• Use 4 ½ teaspoons (21 grams) of bentonite.
2. Prepare Bentonite Slurry:
• Dissolve the bentonite in 1 cup (250 milliliters) of warm water. Stir thoroughly to avoid clumping and continue stirring until the bentonite is fully dissolved and forms a smooth slurry.
3. Add to Must:
• Pour the bentonite slurry into your must (the mixture of juice concentrate and water) before adding the yeast.
4. Mix Thoroughly:
• Stir the must well so that the bentonite is evenly distributed throughout the liquid.

Okay, so now you know the secrets of bentonite. Bentonite is not some frightening mystery substance, and by using bentonite at the beginning of fermentation, winemakers can produce a clearer and more stable final wine.

Your wine has finished fermentation and you're pondering whether to bottle it dry or perhaps back sweeten it - but is the wine ready for back sweetening? Before a wine can be back sweetened, it must be stabilized. But what is wine stabilization? Wine stabilization is the process of preventing unwanted fermentation and spoilage by inhibiting or eliminating any residual yeast or bacteria. As a home wine maker, determining if your newly fermented wine is ready for stabilization is an important skill. If you are bottling a dry wine and there are no remaining sugars, then stabilization is not required. On the other hand, if you are planning to back sweeten your wine before bottling, then stabilization is critical. Stabilization is typically done after fermentation is complete to prevent any remaining yeast from fermenting additional sugars you may add during back sweetening. Here are the steps to determine if your wine is ready for stabilization:

Signs That Fermentation is Complete

The first step for determining if your wine is ready for stabilization is to make sure the fermentation has finished. We have several tools at our disposal:

1. Hydrometer Readings:
• A hydrometer measures the specific gravity (SG) of your wine, which indicates the amount of dissolved solids, which in the case of wine is primarily sugar. At the beginning of fermentation, the SG is high due to the high sugar content. Of course, this is what we expect, since the yeast will ferment those sugars to produce alcohol.
• During fermentation, yeast converts sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide. As the sugars turn to alcohol, the density of our must decreases, which causes the SG to drop. When the SG readings are stable over a few days (typically below 1.000 for dry wines), it indicates that fermentation is complete.
• The winemaker's rule-of-thumb is to take daily readings over three consecutive days. If the readings remain consistent, fermentation is likely complete.
2. Lack of Bubbles:
• Taking lots of specific gravity readings is a lot of effort. During active fermentation, you'll see bubbles rising through the wine as the yeast eats sugar and produces carbon dioxide. When fermentation is complete, bubbling will stop completely, indicating that yeast has stopped because there is no more sugar.
3. Taste Test:
• A taste test can give you an idea of the wine’s dryness. If the wine tastes dry and lacks sweetness, then you'll generally conclude that most of the sugars have been converted to alcohol.
4. Airlock Activity:
• An airlock allows CO2 gas to escape while preventing air from entering the fermenter. During fermentation, the airlock will bubble actively. When fermentation is complete, the bubbling will slow down or stop altogether. Monitoring airlock activity is only useful if your fermentation vessel is sealed tightly. If you have a loose-fitting lid on a bucket, for example, then the airlock may not show activity as the CO2 leaks out from beneath the lid, so you have to use a little common sense here.
5. Monitor Wine Clarity:

• A wine's clarity is an important indicator in the winemaking process. A clear wine shows that most of the yeast and other particulates have settled out of suspension, indicating that the yeast cell count in the wine is low. Wine clarity is crucial for for successful wine stabilization. Even when an unfiltered wine appears clear to the naked eye, it can still harbor as many as 1000 yeast cells per milliliter. You can't see them, but they're there. While this sounds like a lot of residual yeast, a wine clear to the naked eye is generally considered ready for stabilization.

Additional Steps to Ensure Your Wine is Ready for Stabilization

1. Final Hydrometer Reading:
• As mentioned above, stable hydrometer readings over a few days indicate fermentation is complete. A final reading of below 1.000 is typical for dry wines. This is a good sign. If there are no more sugars, then there are no more sugars to referment. 
2. Allow Extra Time:
• Even after the signs of fermentation stopping, it's beneficial to give the wine additional time to ensure that fermentation has truly finished.
3. Secondary Fermentation (Optional):
• Most winemakers transfer their wine to a secondary fermenter for a few weeks (or months) to further clarify the wine and make sure fermentation is complete. This step can help in identifying any residual fermentation activity.

Stabilizing Your Wine

Okay, so you've made it through all of the above (though important) preamble. Now that you've confirmed that fermentation is complete, you can proceed with stabilization:

1. Transfer Wine to a Mixing Vessel (Carboy or another Secondary Fermenter). Siphon the wine to a clean vessel, leaving behind the layer of spent yeast in the current fermenter.
2. Add Potassium Metabisulfite:

• This compound helps protect the wine from oxidation and spoilage bacteria. The typical dose is 1/4 teaspoon per 5 gallons of wine. You can also use 1 Campden tablet per gallon. When using Campden tablets, be sure to crush them first and dissolve them in a small amount of water before adding to the wine.
1. Add Potassium Sorbate:
• Potassium sorbate prevents any remaining yeast from fermenting additional sugars. The typical dose is 1/2 teaspoon per gallon of wine.
2. Mix Thoroughly:
• Don't be lazy. Do a good job stirring both stabilizers into the wine. This should be done gently to avoid introducing oxygen into the wine.
3. Wait Before Back Sweetening:
• Allow the wine to sit for a day or two after adding stabilizers before back sweetening to ensure they are fully effective.

Okay, great! You now have a stabilized wine, which sets the stage for successful back sweetening and bottling, which brings us that much closer to drinking it! 

Have you ever had a wine that tasted great but was so sour that it removed the enamel from your teeth? Have you ever had a wine that was so "crisp" that you could use it to clean concrete? Have you ever had a wine that was so dry that in the desert with no water you would prefer to drink sand? Well, if you've answered yes to any of these questions, or you just want to add a little sweetness to your wine for no better reason than you have a sweet tooth and that's the way you like it, then welcome to the wonderful world of back sweetening.

Back sweetening is a popular technique among home winemakers to do just that -add some sweetness into their wine after fermentation is complete. It’s a great way to balance flavors, counterbalance acidity and fine-tune a wine that matches your taste preferences. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to back sweeten your wine:

Why Back Sweeten Wine?

There's no right or wrong answer to this question. Some like their wines dry. Other like it sweet. Back sweetening allows you to control the final sweet taste of your wine. During fermentation, yeast converts sugars into alcohol. Yeast has this habit of consuming all of the available sugars, which results in a dry wine, which is great if that's the way you like it. By adding some sweetness back into the wine, you can counterbalance aggressive acidity and achieve a balanced flavor profile. Also, judicious back sweetening can shorten the time until your wine is drinkable.

What You’ll Need

1. Finished Wine: Our starting point is a wine that has fermented to completion and has been stabilized (To learn the nitty-gritty on stabilizing wine, click here).
2. Sweetener: Common sweeteners include sugar, honey, grape juice, or simple syrup. If you can't be bothered with mixing your own sweetener, then you can also use a pre-mixed sweetener, which in the home wine making hobby is typically called wine conditioner.
3. Stabilizers: Potassium sorbate and potassium metabisulfite to prevent refermentation.
4. Measuring Tools: Hydrometer or refractometer, and measuring cups. You don't have to use the hydrometer or refractometer. You can always sweeten simply to taste.
5. Sanitized Equipment: Siphon and mixing container.

Step-by-Step Guide to Back Sweetening

1. Stabilize Your Wine:

   • Before adding any sweeteners, stabilize your wine to prevent refermentation. Add potassium sorbate and potassium metabisulfite according to the manufacturer’s instructions, but typically this is one Campden tablet and 1/2 teaspoon of potassium sorbate per gallon of wine. This step is critical to ensure that the yeast does not restart fermentation when you add sugar.

2. Determine Desired Sweetness:

   • Taste your wine to decide how sweet you want it to be. You can make small test batches to find the right balance. A hydrometer or refractometer can help you measure the sugar levels accurately. This is fine if you are a numbers geek and want to keep detailed notes. Otherwise, you may simply sweeten to personal taste.

3. Prepare Your Sweetener:

   • You'll find it easier if you dissolve your sugar in a small amount of wine or water to create a simple syrup. This makes it easier to mix evenly into your wine. You can also sweeten with unfermented grape juice, but if so, make sure your juice is pasteurized to avoid introducing unwanted microbes.

4. Add Sweetener to Wine:

   • Gradually add the sweetener to your wine, stirring well to mix the suger completely. It's very important for thorough mixing, because otherwise you are not really tasting all of the sugar you've just added. Taste as you go to avoid over-sweetening. It’s better to add too little at first and adjust as needed.

5. Let the Wine Settle:

   • After sweetening, let the wine sit for a few days. This allows the flavors to properly integrate. What does this mean? Sometimes when sweetening, you taste a sample and you taste sugar and you taste wine, but they seem like two separate tastes.  After a few days, these flavors meld together. We also like to wait a few days to make sure the stabilizers (potassium sorbate and potassium metabisulfite) have worked properly. Give the wine a final taste test before bottling.

6. Bottle Your Wine:

   • Before bottling your wine, make sure the stabilizers have worked properly and the wine has not begun to ferment again. If you skip this step and later discover the wine has begun fermenting, then you will discover it later with corks shooting out of your bottles. 

Tips and Tricks

• Experiment with Sweeteners: Different sweeteners add unique flavors. Honey can add rich floral notes, while grape juice can enhance the wine’s natural fruitiness. If you are sweetening a cider, for example, you can sweeten it with raspberry juice.
• Monitor Stability: Even with stabilizers, keep an eye on your bottled wine for any signs of refermentation, such as fizzing or increased pressure in the bottles. Once again, it's always best to have verified no re-fermentation before bottling the wine.
• Keep Notes: Okay, so we said earlier that you don't need fancy equipment like hydrometers or refractometers to back sweeten, but as a minimum you should at least keep notes. Record how much sweetener you used in a particular batch. This helps replicate successful recipes in the future.

Back sweetening is sweet! Okay, that's a lame joke, and I am rightfully ashamed (though I couldn't resist. What does that say about my mental state?), but back sweetening is another tool in our winemaker's repertoire that allows us to fine-tune our home-made wines to perfection. With some experimentation and careful attention to detail, you shape your wine to exactly the way you want it. And that's a prime reason why we love this hobby!

Editor's Note: 

Before we begin, I want to get this out of the way. Sometimes malolactic fermentation is referred to as MLF, and lactic acid bacteria are referred to as LAB. Well, I hate acronyms. I've always hated acronyms, and I will forever hate acronyms.  Damn them all to hell! I find them to be annoying, lazy, witless and a defecation upon the natural beauty of language. After all, say out loud "malo-lactic fermentation" and observe how those phenomes roll velvety off the tongue. Consequently, as God is my witness and over my dead body, you will NEVER catch me using acronyms. So dive right in, enjoy this article, and learn some things about MLF and LAB.

Understanding Malolactic Fermentation (MLF - ha ha, just kidding)

Malolactic fermentation is a secondary fermentation process in which lactic acid bacterial convert malic acid into lactic acid. This process reduces cider's overall acidity and can impart a smoother and more complex flavor profile. Unlike the primary fermentation driven by yeast that we've explicitly added, malolactic fermentation is a bacterial fermentation that occurs naturally under the right conditions. If you are using fresh, preservative free and unpasturized cider, there is a good chance that the malolactic bacteria will be present.

Incidentally, in the context of cider and wine making, the term "malolactic bacteria" is often used interchangeably with "lactic acid bacteria" to specifically refer to those bacteria that carry out malolactic fermentation.

Advantages of Natural Spontaneous Malolactic Fermentation

It's gotta be good for something, or we wouldn't be talking about it, right?

1. Enhanced Flavor Complexity:

• Malolactic fermentation can add depth and complexity to the cider's flavor profile. The conversion of malic acid to lactic acid can create buttery, creamy notes and enhance the overall mouthfeel.

• The process reduces the sharpness of malic acid, which is replaced by lactic acid, resulting in a smoother and more balanced cider. This can be particularly beneficial for apples high in malic acid, which might otherwise produce a very tart cider. Think about biting into a Granny Smith apple and the tremors that ripple through your teeth and across your tongue. That's malic acid.

• Yes, malolactic fermentation is all natural, and if you're using organic cider, then we can say it's organic too. Can't get more earthy-crunchy than that!
• Natural lactic acid bacteria are often present with the apples, and the malolactic fermentation occurs spontaneously and without any annoying intervention from us. For cider makers wanting to produce a beverage with minimal intervention and additives, this is a bonus.

Disadvantages of Natural Spontaneous Malolactic Fermentation

Okay, so this is too good to be true. Something's got to be wrong, right? So let's lay out our "get out of jail free" disclaimers so in the exceedingly rare chance your cider doesn't come out absolutely perfect, we can say, "Ha ha, sucker, you screwed up. You trusted us!"

1. Unpredictability:

• Since spontaneous malolactic fermentation relies on naturally occurring bacteria, the process can be unpredictable. In other words, sometimes it just doesn't happen. Okay, so technically if you're a textbook weenie, you can say there is no guarantee that the desirable strains of lactic acid bacteria will dominate, which can lead to inconsistent results. True, but in practice we've never heard anyone report a problem.

• If undesirable bacteria outcompete the beneficial lactic acid bacteria, they can produce off-flavors and spoil the cider. This risk is higher in less controlled environments. Once again, for completeness, we're repeating textbook stuff. Cider is amazing in its high acidity and low pH. Under proper anerobic conditions, we've never actually heard of "undesirable bacteria" outcompeting our beneficial bacterial friends. On the other hand, we have heard about our asshole friends drinking our fermenting cider before it was ready.

• This is a big disadvantage. Spontaneous malolactic fermentation will significantly extend the time until the cider is ready to drink. This conjures up the old phrase "a watched pot never boils." You can stare at your fermenter for one or more months with these tiny annoying bubbles that keep rising magically from nowhere, and you want them to stop so your cider will finally be ready, but the bubbling just keeps going....If you've got the patience, it's worth the wait.

• Recognizing if have a malolactic fermentation is important. Because the lactic acid bacteria tend to work annoyingly slow and over long time periods, it's easy to miss. But if you bottle your cider while malolactic fermentation is still occurring, you run the risk of developing too much carbonation, which in tern increases the chance of exploding bottles.

How to Recognize Natural Spontaneous Malolactic Fermentation

• Malolactic fermentation typically produces tiny bubbles that seemingly and endlessly rise up the fermenter. This contrasts with the primary yeast fermentation which is quite vigorous, or in textbook speak, bubbles like crazy. Unlike the yeast (alcohol) fermentation, malolactic fermentation may also appear sporadic, meaning it could seem to start and stop. Such exceedingly slow but apparently long-term bubbling behavior is the typical indication that malolactic fermentation is occurring.

• If you are an enthusiastic hobbyist, then monitoring the cider's pH and acid levels can help identify malolactic fermentation. A decrease in total acidity and an increase in pH are indicators that MLF may be occurring. But let's face it: most of us are (circle one: too lazy, disinterested, ambivalent) to measure pH and acid. We just let it ferment to completion in gnawing anticipation of when we can finally drink the cider!

• You can taste the cider regularly. If the cider becomes smoother and less tart, with the development of buttery or creamy notes, malolactic fermentation is likely underway. By the way, a buttery flavor indicates the presence of diacetyl, which, in addition to lactic acid and CO2, is another byproduct of malolactic fermentation. However, if malolactic fermentation progresses to completion, which in our case is typical, the buttery diacetyl flavor will disappear, as the lactic acid bacteria will reuptake the diacetyl.

• Lactic acid bacteria typically produce fine lees (sediment) at the bottom of the fermentation vessel. This sediment is different from the yeast lees, and once again is a sign of malolactic fermentation.

• Temperature Control: Keep the cider in a slightly warmer environment (18-22°C or 64-72°F) to encourage bacterial activity.
• Avoid Sulfites: Sulfites can inhibit and kill lactic acid bacteria, so avoid adding them during or after primary fermentation if you wish to promote spontaneous malolactic fermentation.

• Use pasteurized cider. The heat will have eliminated all lactic acid bacteria.
• Kill them all. Okay, so I know this sounds cold (and potentially psychotic), but that's what we do. Malolactic bacteria are very sensitive to sulfites, and it doesn't take much to annihilate the entire population. Fifteen parts-per-million (ppm - damn, I've used an acronym!) typically does the trick. For reference, one Campden tablet per gallon achieves 30 parts-per-million with no taste contribution, so that's all you need.